Hattusha (Kanesh) and Kuššar not of Anatolia, but Syro-Israel
by
According
to my findings in this series,
the
major Hittite capital of Hattush(a)
was
actually Kadesh on the Orontes,
which
was also (more tentatively)
the
famous trading hub (karum) of Kanesh.
Introduction
The
geographical hub of the so-called Hittites – whoever they really were – may not
have been in Anatolia, centred upon Boğazköy, as is usually thought, but in
Syro-Amorite (Amurrite) territory.
This radical new
re-location I introduced in a series of recent articles, based upon the
groundbreaking thesis (2020) of Royce (Richard) Erickson:
A PROBLEM IN CHALDAEAN AND ELAMITE
GEOGRAPHY
(7)
A PROBLEM IN CHALDAEAN AND ELAMITE GEOGRAPHY
a must-read
for anyone who is involved in the serious study of ancient geography.
My articles
relevant to this are:
Kadesh
(Qadesh) as Hittite Hattush(a)?
(7)
Kadesh (Qadesh) as Hittite Hattush(a)?
Kadesh and
Kanesh
and:
Boğazköy,
if not Hattusha, might be Susa
(7)
Boğazköy, if not Hattusha, might be Susa
According to
my findings in this series, the major Hittite capital of Hattush(a) was
actually Kadesh on the Orontes, which was also (more tentatively) the famous
trading hub (karum) of Kanesh.
Now, in this
article, I hope to find as well – in the context of this much revised geography
– a location for Kuššar (Kussara), also
a karum, which, too, apparently had served as a capital for the
so-called Hittites. Its location is currently quite unknown.
Thus we read
(somewhat vaguely) at:
Kussara - Ancient Lost City Of The Old
Hittite Kingdom - Ancient Pages
Kussara – Ancient Lost City Of The Old Hittite Kingdom
AncientPages.com | July 7, 2021 | Featured Stories,
Ellen
Lloyd - AncientPages.com - The
ancient city of Kussara has never been found, but there is no reason to doubt
its existence. Located somewhere in Anatolia, the Bronze Age city of Kussara
was once an important place where the Old Hittite Kingdom emerged for the first
time.
Our knowledge
of the Hittites, one of the most powerful ancient civilizations that occupied
the ancient region of Anatolia, is still somewhat limited, and we must rely on
archaeological discoveries to understand more about this long-gone ancient
civilization. ….
[End
of quote]
Hazor
HAZOR - JewishEncyclopedia.com
“Fortified
city between Ramah and Kadesh, on the high ground overlooking Lake Merom”.
Given its
importance, and its relative closeness to Kadesh, Hazor (Hebrew: chatsor, חָצוֹר) would be my choice for the significant Kuššar.
We read more about the large site of Hazor at:
Tel Hazor | The
Institute of Archaeology
Tel Hazor
Hazor,
the largest biblical-era site in Israel, covered in the second millennium BCE
an area of some 200 acres. The Canaanite city consisted of both an Upper and a
Lower city, and its population is estimated to have been about 10,000-15,000
people.
Its
strategic location, controlling one of the major routes between Egypt and Syria
and Mesopotamia, contributed to it being the largest city in the entire region.
Hazor
is mentioned in various written documents throughout the second millennium BCE,
including the Egyptian Execration Texts, Cuneiform records from the Mari
Archive, Annals of the Pharaohs of the New Kingdom and the Amarna Archive from
the time of Akhenaten.
The
destruction of Canaanite Hazor, referred to it as the 'head of all those
kingdoms' (Joshua 11:10), is described as part of the Israelite conquest of
Canaan. The Israelite rebuilding and fortification of the city is attributed to
King Solomon (1 Kings 9:15), following which the city developed as a major
administrative center of the northern kingdom of Israel in the 9th and
the 8th centuries BCE. The Israelite city was eventually
destroyed by the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III (2 Kings 15:29), never to
regain its former status and wealth.
Hazor
was excavated in the 1950's and 60's by a team from the Hebrew University, led
by Prof. Yigael Yadin. Excavations on the Upper City were renewed in 1990
(named the Selz Foundation Hazor Excavations in Memory of Yigael Yadin)
by Prof. Amnon
Ben-Tor and continue to the present day, co-directed with Dr. Igor
Kreimerman.
Extensive
architectural remains were uncovered at Hazor during the last 28 seasons of
excavations. These include Israelite fortifications, administrative and
domestic buildings, and impressive Canaanite palatial structures and temples. A
wealth of small finds, including several cuneiform tablets, statues and
figurines, jewellery and weapons were also found. ….
[End of quote]
Turning to
Kuššar:
Robert
Ghazaryan, Institute of
Oriental Studies of National Academy of Sciences of Armenia, tells of Kuššar’s supposed intimate connection with
the Hittites (2017):
Kussara_the_cradle_of_Hittite_state.pdf
Kussara - the cradle of the hittite state
Texts
and History of Kussara
The
city of Kussara is occasionally mentioned in the clay tablets of the old
Assyrian trade period and less often in the period of the Hittite Kingdom1.
From
Old Assyrian trade tablets we know that a palace and an Assyrian trade station,
or Karum, existed in the city. Kussara plays a central role in the
earliest history of the eastern part of Asia Minor and western part of the
Armenian Highland, and yet it is one of the least well-attested cities in the
Old Assyrian sources (20th-18th centuries BC) [sic]. Only 26 texts refer to the
city and attestations of Kussara alongside other toponyms are even scarcer. The
Old Assyrian texts contain little direct evidence about the history of Kussara.
Among them
there are some texts containing information that Kussara was in war with the
Land of Zalpa2 and in close association with Luhuzattiya3. The city played a
relatively unimportant role in international trade according to Old Assyrian
texts4.
But
Kussara first of all was a city from where originated the dynasty of Hittite
kings. Pithana5, the earliest-documented Hittite ruler, was a king of the city
of Kussara, and forerunner of the later Hittite dynasty. He reigned during the
18th century BC. During his reign he conquered the city of Kanesh (Nesa), heart
of the Assyrian trading colonies network in the east of Asia Minor and the
western part of the Armenian Highland. Pithana came down from Kussara in great
force and took Nesa in the night by storm. He seized the king of Nesa, but
inflicted no harm on the inhabitants of the city. Instead, he made them “his
mothers and fathers”6. The seat of the Kussaran dynasty was then moved to
Kanesh, though Kussara appears to have retained ceremonial importance.
Pithana
was succeeded by his son, Anitta (18th century BC). He defeated Piyusti, king
of Hattian state. Anitta conquered the Hattian capital city Hattusa (the future
Hittite capital). Then he destroyed the city, sowed cress over it, and laid a
curse on the site7. Anitta also attacked the city of Zalpa (Anitta defeated
Huzziya, the last recorded king of Zalpuwa/Zalpa), recapturing the Kaneshan god
and ending the threat from the north. Next, Anitta turned his attention
southwards and defeated the city of Salatiwara8 (which lay on a road connecting
the kingdoms of Wahsusana and Purushanda (Burushhattum in the Old Assyrian
merchant tablets)9) in two campaigns. In the final stage of his campaigns,
Anitta marched against the important city of Purushanda. Its king, albeit
ruling a widely respected realm, had the wisdom to voluntarily submit to
Anitta, bringing gifts including a throne and a scepter of iron10. Anitta also
took the title of “Great King”. His name, together with the name of his father,
appears on an inscription on a dagger11 found in Nesa.
The
establishment of the Kussaran dynasty in Nesa had dramatically altered the
political landscape of the eastern half of Asia Minor and the western half of
the Armenian Highland (18th century BC). The conquests of Pithana and Anitta
had resulted in an extensive unified political structure encompassing the whole
of the Marassantiya (Halys) basin north to the Pontic region, and the entire
region south of the Marassantiya to Purushanda. Nesa and Kussara were the focal
points of this structure12.
It
seems, however, that after Annita [sic] his dynasty lost control over its
original city state of Kussara, which passed into the hands of either a
collateral branch of the royal family or a rival Hittite clan whose dynasty
would found the new Hittite state. Kussara remained one of many city-states in
the contact zone of Asia Minor and the Armenian Highland, until the reign of
Labarna.
When
Labarna13 came to the throne, he was only the ruler of the city-state of
Kussara. In addition to the territories won by Labarna in the south-western
part of the Armenian Highland, the Hittites must also have controlled
territories located a similar distance to the north of Kussara, at that time
the center of the Hittite kingdom. This may have been the result of a series of
northern campaigns conducted by Labarna14.
Hattusili
I (ca 1650-1620 BC), recognized as one of the first Hittite kings, referred to
himself as “man of Kussara”, but moved his capital from there to Hattusa (from
which he likely took his name). It is clear, however, that even after the
capital was moved, Kussara retained some importance, as it was there that to
Hattusa (from which he likely took his name). It is clear, however, that even
after the capital was moved, Kussara retained some importance, as it was there
that Hattusili would call a council on his own succession.
As the
expression “Man of Kussara” suggests, Hattusili probably began his reign in
Kussara. The major document of Hattusili’s reign is commonly referred to as the
Testament. While Hattusili’s Annals are one of our chief sources
of information on the military exploits of Hattusili, the Testament
provides us with important details about the internal political affairs of the
Hittite kingdom during his reign15. Perhaps Hattusili I spent his final days
there, in the city of his ancestors16. He also declared his grandson Mursili
the next king of Hatti in Kussara.
Hattusili
I and Hattusili III (1267-1237 BC)17 mentioned the origins of the Kings of the
land of Hatti as Hattusili I styled himself: “man of Kussara . . . Great
King Tabarna, Hattusili the Great King, King of the land of Hatti”. No
other town or land was ever mentioned by a King of Hatti as the origin of his
dynasty. There is no information on Kussara in later Hittite sources.
The
Location of Kussara
The
borders of Kussara are unknown and the old city of Kussara has not been found,
though several proposals for its location have been advanced. In the Old
Assyrian trade texts it is mentioned that Kussara had closer relations with the
cities of Hattum, Hurama, Luhuzattiya, Salahsuwa, Samuha, Tegarama,
Timelkiya18. All these settlements were to the east and north-east of Kanesh19:
The
Hittite sources offer little help in locating Kussara. Apart from the well
known text of Anitta, the city is never mentioned in any geographical context
in Hittite texts. All of this of course offers no clues for the location of the
city, and very divergent suggestions regarding the location of Kussara have
been proposed: B. Landsberger located it in “the nearest proximity of
Hattusa”20, S. Alp identified it with Acemhöyük21 at the Tuz Gölü (Lake
Tatta)22, J. Lewy advocated for its location near Comana Cappadociae or at
Kemer on the Plain of Elbistan (Albistan - in the north-eastern part of the
Cilicia)23, and J. Garstang and O. Gurney saw Alişar as an “extremely
plausible” candidate24. T. Bryce, meanwhile, said “the city of Kussara probably
lay to the south east of the Marassantiya river basin in the Anti-Taurus
region, on or near one of the main trade routes from Assyria and perhaps in the
vicinity of modern Şar (Comana Cappadocia)”25. M. Forlanini says that Kussara
was located between Hurama and Tegarama (at the place of the present settlement
Gürün), north of Luhuzzadia and probably on a crossroad leading towards north,
to Samuha (located in the province of Sebastia, in the place of the
archaeological site Kayalıpınar)26. G. Barjamovic says that Kussara was
situated on the route to Kanesh, between Hurama and Samuha27.
I
agree with the viewpoints that Kussara was situated in the region of the Anti
Taurus Mountains, in the western part of the Armenian Highland, to the west of
Tegarama, to the north-east of Kanesh, in the territory to the south of Samuha.
Conclusions
Thus,
to summarize the facts it can be stated that Kussara was the main political
center of the western part of the Armenian Highland. Kussara attained its
highest status during the later Colony period (20th-18th centuries BC) when it
was the seat of the dynasty of Pithana and his son Anitta, before shifting
their center of power to Nesa (Kanesh). Hittite military and political power
was first built up in Kussara, although there was no blood line linking Anitta
with Hattusili I and his successors. Hattusili I was based in Kussara, though
soon establishing his new center of government on the ruins of Hattusa.
Defensively
strong, Hattusa was strategically badly sited by comparison with Kussara, for
purposes of access to north Syria and Mesopotamia. Playing a significant role
in the Assyrian colony period and the period of the Old Hittite Kingdom Kussara
probably declined and was abandoned already in the period of the Middle Hittite
Kingdom. ….
The key
figures in all of this appear to be Pithana and his son, Anitta, who “conquered
the Hattian capital city Hattusa (the future Hittite capital)”.
Conventionally
speaking, we are in the era of the mid c. C18th BC., probably a little after
the reign of King Hammurabi of Babylon.
In
revisionist terms, so early a dating would need to be converted to, say, the
early Divided Kingdom of Israel (c. 900 BC). That is approximately where our
search for these ancient kings of Kuššar
may need to take place.
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