Imperial Rome Re-Considered
by
Damien F. Mackey
“Like Vespasian and Trajan’s own father, Trajan was an apt military
leader, and his purging of the Praetorian Guard showed he was not in the
position to be disobeyed or stabbed in the back by his own soldiers”.
Introduction
This article is a tentative effort to give new
revised form to a part of imperial Roman history, following on from my hinting
of a possible fusion of:
Antiochus 'Epiphanes' and Emperor Hadrian. Part One:
"… a mirror image"
and of Nero (Domitius) and Domitian. The imperial
period under consideration here would be, in conventional terms, c. 54-117 AD,
Nero to Trajan, the supposed predecessor of Hadrian
Great-nephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of
Claudius; nephew of Caligula; great-great-nephew of Tiberius; grandson of
Germanicus; great-great-grandson of Augustus
|
October 13, 54 AD – June 9, 68 AD
|
June 9, 68 AD
Committed suicide after being declared a public enemy by the Senate. |
13 years, 7 months and 27 days
|
(68–96) Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty[edit]
Portrait
|
Name
|
Birth
|
Succession
|
Reign
|
Death
|
Time in office
|
 |
June 8, 68 AD – January 15, 69 AD
|
7 months and 7 days
|
||||
 |
Appointed by Praetorian
Guard
|
January 15, 69 AD – April 16, 69 AD
|
3 months and 1 day (91 days)
|
|||
 |
September 24, 15 AD, Rome
|
April 17, 69 AD – December 20, 69 AD
|
8 months and 3 days
|
|||
 |
December 21, 69 AD – June 24, 79 AD
|
June 24, 79 AD
Natural causes |
9 years, 6 months and 3 days
|
|||
 |
December 30, 39 AD, Rome
|
Son of Vespasian
|
June 24, 79 AD – September 13, 81 AD
|
September 13, 81 AD
Natural causes (fever) |
2 years, 2 months and 20 days
|
|
 |
October 24, 51 AD, Rome
|
Son of Vespasian
|
September 14, 81 AD – September 18, 96 AD
|
September 18, 96 AD
Assassinated by court officials |
15 years and 4 days
|
(96–192) Nerva–Antonine dynasty[edit]
Main article: Nerva–Antonine
dynasty
Portrait
|
Name
|
Birth
|
Succession
|
Reign
|
Death
|
Time in office
|
 |
Appointed by the Senate
|
September 18, 96 AD – January 27, 98 AD
|
January 27, 98 AD
Natural causes |
1 year, 4 months and 9 days
|
||
 |
A new structure
would go something like this:
Nero = Domitian;
Galba, Otho, Vitellius phase = Nerva period;
Vespasian = Trajan
Hadrian no
longer to be regarded as following on from Trajan.
Essentially Military,
‘Ushering in a Golden Age’
Vespasian and
Trajan do get compared. For example in “Augustus, Vespasian and Trajan – Comparing Emperors”,
at: https://yuptab.com/augustus-vespasian-and-trajan-comparing-emperors/
The
Roman Empire stood for centuries, and remains one of the greatest empires to
have existed to this day. During these years, there were good emperors, and
there were bad emperors. During the periods that the former reigned, the empire
seemed to flourish, and during the periods where the latter reigned the primary
sources are fraught with stories of trials and tribulations, unhappy
populations, and general unease.
The
largest problem with an autocracy like the empire of Ancient Rome lies in the
fact that the empire rests in the whims of one man. If he rules well, and can
master his own greed and the corruption that the power brings with it, the
people will be happy and relatively docile under his rule. If the lure of power
is too much, the empire can easily crumble under his fist, and autocratic
though it may be, a rebellion of the majority of a population can be too much
to fight.
There
were many emperors who were considered ‘good’ by those who recorded their
histories, as well as far too many considered ‘bad.’ This paper, however, will
cover just three of these good emperors, and will focus on why they went down
in the texts of Rome, as well as modern day histories, as good emperors, as
well as their major accomplishments, and why they are remembered. These three
emperors are Augustus, the first emperor of Rome himself, Vespasian, and
Trajan, respectively.
….
Although
Augustus was the first, he was obviously not the only good emperor that Rome
had rule over it. Nero saw the ending of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and this
ending was not on a happy note. Blamed for many of Rome’s problems, including
the great fire that is to this day associated with his reign, Nero was not well
liked. The eventual ascension of Vespasian to the throne, after some initial
conflict with finding the next emperor to reign longer than a few months,
signaled the end of the Julio-Claudians, and the beginning of the Flavian
dynasty, which Vespasian, along with his son Titus, would lay a mark in history
as a golden age for Rome (Alston, 166). Although this golden age would be short
lived, ending when Vespasian’s other son, Domitian, acquires the throne, it is
an age of prosperity that is marked by both building and military
accomplishments.
Vespasian
came into rule at a time when war with Judea, Britain and Germany was rampant.
However, instead of crumbling under the pressure of warfare, Vespasian was able
to use this to his advantage. After quelling the problems in Judea, he was able
to fund building projects and fighting in Britain and Germany meant expansion
in the west. With the help of Titus, Vespasian was able to bring most of this
warfare under control.
It
was also at this time, with funds from winning the conflict with Judea, that
Vespasian was able to build what could easily be considered his biggest claim
in history books. The [Colosseum] was more than just a place for the gladiatorial
games to take place, it was a standing reminder of what Vespasian had done. It
was a monument to conquering the armies of Judea, but by building it over the
lake at Nero’s palace, it was also a marker to signify the end of the
Julio-Claudian Dynasty, and the reign of Nero himself. It marked an ushering in
of a new sort of emperor, who did not necessarily have to be born into the
highest class. Like Augustus before him, Vespasian was able to set up a sort of
framework for those who followed.
Finally,
the emperor Trajan took the empire to what could be considered its limits,
boundary wise. Hadrian after him [sic] would build fortifications to try and
hold the empire at this position, and further emperors would try and push the
boundaries with little success.
Trajan
was essentially one of the few untainted by the corrupt image of the reign of
Domitian. His father has served in Judea with Titus, and Trajan himself had
been away from Rome during the critical years of Domitian’s tyrannical rule
giving him an outward appearance of trust and honesty, something the people of
Rome would have needed after another poor ruler so soon after the death of
Nero, even if Vespasian and Titus had ushered in a golden age before Domitian.
Like
Vespasian and Trajan’s own father, Trajan was an apt military leader, and his
purging of the Praetorian Guard showed he was not in the position to be
disobeyed or stabbed in the back by his own soldiers. He built the Forum, a
mark of his grandeur as Vespasian’s [Colosseum] before him and Hadrian’s Wall
after. Most importantly, Trajan had the strength, the cunning, the expertise as
well as the moral backbone to bring Rome back from the poor ruling of Domitian,
and push it’s boundaries to the very limit.
When
comparing these three emperors, it is hard to pick who ruled best, because even
though each is considered to be one of Rome’s finest emperors, each also has
his short comings, as well. ….
[End of quote]
The Dacians
Vespasian
…. the Dacians
continued to harass Rome, an
invasion in 11 or 10 bce being particularly
devastating. Augustan generals gradually pushed them back from the left bank of
the Danube while also settling 80,000 men within the Roman province of Moesia on the right
bank. No further trouble was recorded until autumn 69 ce, when the Dacians found Moesia vulnerable after
the legions had departed to fight Vitellius. After
capturing a number of forts, they were beaten back by Vespasian’s
general Gaius Licinius Mucianus, then on his way to Italy. http://www.ancient.eu/trajan/
Trajan
Trajan …. Known as a benevolent
ruler, his reign was noted for public projects which benefitted the populace
such as improving the dilapidated road system, constructing aqueducts, building
public baths and extending the port of Ostia. Trajan was also a highly
successful general and won three major conflicts against the Dacians and in the
East, resulting in the Roman Empire
reaching its greatest size up to that date. http://www.ancient.eu/trajan/
Commander in Thrace (Thracia) and Germany,
in Crete and Cyrenaica
Vespasian
Despite not coming from a noble family, Vespasian served as a
colonel in Thrace (north of Greece) and a quaestor (financial official) on
the island of Crete and in Cyrenaica (eastern Libya). Before
incurring the wrath of Emperor Claudius’s wife Agrippina (as
many did), he was the commander of a legion in Germany and Britain. He fought in over
thirty battles and captured at least twenty cities. … Vitellius,
increased the Guard to 16 cohorts, totaling 16,000 personal men. Shortly
thereafter, however, when Vespasian emerged as the eventual victor, the
Praetorians were reduced back to a more manageable nine cohorts. http://www.unrv.com/military/praetorian-guard.php
Trajan
Although Trajan did not
hurry to Rome,
he did think it necessary to solve the controversy surrounding the mutiny by
the Praetorian Guards who had wished to punish the assassins of Domitian.
Trajan sent for the conspirators, especially Casperius Aelianus - the guard who
had engineered the mutiny - to meet him in Upper Germany to receive a special
commission. According to historian Cassius Dio, Trajan offered “to employ them
for some purpose and then put them out of the way.” http://www.ancient.eu/trajan/
Colonies were founded with one at Aprus
(Colonia Claudia Aprensis) by Claudius or Nero, and at Deultum (Colonia Flavia
Pacensis Deultum) under Vespasian. Trajan expanded further on settling Thracia
…. http://www.unrv.com/provinces/thracia.php
During the Roman period, the
Jewish population of Cyrenaica grew. …. Growing tensions between Jews and
Romans in Cyrenaica erupted in rebellion in 115 CE. Known as the “Kitos War”[9] this revolt
dragged on for two years, with massacres and atrocities that shocked even Roman
historians. The province was virtually depopulated, and Emperor
Trajan resettled it with Greek-speaking colonists brought in
from other provinces. This may have been the occasion for an extensive coinage
of silver drachms (3.2 grams) and hemidrachms (1.6 grams) bearing the stern
face of Trajan obverse, and Zeus Ammon reverse.
Praetorian Guard
Vespasian
… Vitellius,
increased the Guard to 16 cohorts, totaling 16,000 personal men. Shortly
thereafter, however, when Vespasian emerged as the eventual victor, the
Praetorians were reduced back to a more manageable nine cohorts.
Trajan
Although Trajan did not
hurry to Rome,
he did think it necessary to solve the controversy surrounding the mutiny by
the Praetorian Guards who had wished to punish the assassins of Domitian.
Trajan sent for the conspirators, especially Casperius Aelianus - the guard who
had engineered the mutiny - to meet him in Upper Germany to receive a special
commission. According to historian Cassius Dio, Trajan offered “to employ them
for some purpose and then put them out of the way.” http://www.ancient.eu/trajan/
Parthia
Vespasian
Vologases …. Parthia was troubled
throughout his reign on both its eastern and western borders.
….
Vespasian had Vologases’s backing
in 69, and the emperor even pondered sending him troops to aid in the defeat of
the barbarian Alans. Better relations allowed domestic opportunities, as
Vologases founded the city of
Vologesia as a rival to Seleucia. ….
Trajan
The war began when the [Parthians] placed one of their own on
the throne of Armenia, a Roman buffer state. This “upset the delicate balance
of power” on the eastern frontier. Trajan intervened, and Armenia was made a
province of Rome. The army continued on eastward and annexed Mesopotamia, including the Parthian
capital of Ctesiphon. Under Trajan, the Roman Empire now stretched further than
it ever had - from Scotland to the Caspian Sea. …. http://www.ancient.eu/trajan/
Jewish War
Vespasian
… Vitellius,
increased the Guard to 16 cohorts, totaling 16,000 personal men. Shortly
thereafter, however, when Vespasian emerged as the eventual victor, the
Praetorians were reduced back to a more manageable nine cohorts.
But in AD 67 he was offered a
province and an army command of three legions by Nero. If the emperor was mad
and wanted to see Vespasian dead, he needed him now. The Jewish rebellion of AD
67 called for a commander who knew of ways to oust the Jews from their walled
cities. Someone had obviously reminded the emperor of Vespasian's record
against the defensive earthworks in Britain.
At the age of fifty eight Vespasian headed for Judaea, directed the reduction of Jotapata in the north and began the preparations for the siege of Jerusalem.
At the age of fifty eight Vespasian headed for Judaea, directed the reduction of Jotapata in the north and began the preparations for the siege of Jerusalem.
On hearing of Nero's death Vespasian formally
recognized the accession of Galba.
When news arrived of Galba's murder in early AD
69, Vespasian was prompted to consider rebellion. He had on his side the
governor of Syria, Gaius Licinius Mucianus. At first the two had not got along
well, mainly due to Mucianus resenting that Vespasian's military command had
been given higher status by Nero than his governorship, but now they both
needed allies to weather the crisis following the death of two emperors.
After Otho's suicide in April AD 69 they formed
plans to take action. They both acknowledged Vitellius' accession, but
meanwhile secretly enlisted the support of Tiberius Julius Alexander in Egypt.
Mucianus had no sons of his own to be his heirs. Alexander was only of
equestrian rank - and a Jew. Neither therefore could be considered as potential
emperors. Vespasian though had two sons, Titus and Domitian, was of senatorial
rank and had held the consulship. All three agreed, that he should be their
candidate for the throne.
On 1 July, Alexander commanded the legions in
Egypt to swear an oath of allegiance to Vespasian. Within two weeks the armies
in Judaea and Syria had followed that example.
The plan was that Mucianus would lead twenty thousand men into Italy, with Vespasian remaining in the east, where he could control the all-important Egyptian grain supply to Rome.
….
The plan was that Mucianus would lead twenty thousand men into Italy, with Vespasian remaining in the east, where he could control the all-important Egyptian grain supply to Rome.
….
Vespasian now headed for Rome, leaving his son
Titus behind to capture Jerusalem, and arrived at Rome in October AD 70. He was
almost 61 but he was still fit and active.
Soon after Titus in Palestine brought an end to the Jewish revolt (although the siege of Masada continued until AD 73) and in the north Cerealis defeated the Gallo-German uprising at Augusta Trevivorum. In effect Vespasian, an old military veteran, was the man who could finally deliver peace to the empire.
Soon after Titus in Palestine brought an end to the Jewish revolt (although the siege of Masada continued until AD 73) and in the north Cerealis defeated the Gallo-German uprising at Augusta Trevivorum. In effect Vespasian, an old military veteran, was the man who could finally deliver peace to the empire.
Vespasian possessed insight and
the sense of how to maintain peace, too. Though the destruction of Jerusalem
and the retaliation against the Jews were carried out with unnecessary severity,
and restrictions were placed on some of their practices, Jews were excused from
Caesar-worship. http://www.roman-empire.net/emperors/vespasian.html
Trajan
[Trajan’s] father, a career
soldier also named Marcus Ulpius Traianus, had been governor of both Baetica in
Spain and Syria,
a commander during the Jewish War
of 67 – 68 CE ….
Rebellion among the Jewish
population broke out in Cyrenaica, spreading to both Egypt and Cyprus; however, when trouble
broke out on the northern frontier, Trajan left his army in Syria and retreated
to Rome. ….
Simple habits
and virtues
Vespasian
…. the Flavians had succeeded the Julio-Claudians, and the
simple habits and virtues of the Italian bourgeois replaced, at the court of
the emperor, the epicurean wastefulness of the city-bred descendants of
Augustus and Livia. ….
He scorned luxury and
laziness, ate the food of peasants, fasted one day in each month, and declared
war upon extravagance. When a Roman whom he had nominated for office came to
him smelling of perfume, he said, “I would rather you smelled of garlic,” and
withdrew the nomination. He made himself easily accessible, talked and lived on
a footing of equality with the people, enjoyed jokes at his own expense, and
allowed everyone great freedom in criticizing his conduct and his character.
Having discovered a conspiracy against him he forgave the plotters, saying that
they were fools not to realize what a burden of cares a ruler wore. He lost his
good temper in one case only. http://erenow.com/ancient/durantromecaesar/87.html
Trajan
Cassius Dio wrote, “Trajan
was most conspicuous for his justice, for his bravery, and for the simplicity
of his habits.” As an emperor who was concerned with both good government
and the public welfare, he instituted an excellent domestic policy - providing
for the children of the poor, restoring the dilapidated road system, as well as
building new bridges, aqueducts, public baths, and a modern port at Ostia.
Lastly, he continued his predecessor’s policy of undoing much of the harm done
by Domitian by freeing prisoners and recalling exiles. http://www.ancient.eu/trajan/
Christians, Gladiators and Cult of Sol
Invictus
“Similar to
Vespasian, Trajan was a good soldier and a man of talent. He was also a man of
tolerance and courtesy. He expanded the empire against the Parthians. He put
down another rebellion by Jews. He favored applying the law against only those
Christians about whom people complained, or Christians who had created
disturbances, and he declared that the accused were to receive a proper trial
in which they were able to face their accusers. During his nineteen years of
rule he improved the empire's roads and harbors, he beautified Rome and he
provided support for the children of Rome's poor. And although the Senate
continued to have little real power, Trajan consulted it and maintained its
good will. The historian Tacitus – who lived during Trajan's rule – praised
Trajan for restoring Rome's "old spirit," including the feeling that
one could express oneself freely”.
Treatment of
Christians
Vespasian, Trajan, treated Christians in a way
that is generally perceived to have been tolerant - at least by the standards
of that age.
Vespasian
Still more important to the
subsequent progress of civilization was the period of tranquility for the
infant Church which began in this reign. The official classes of Rome then regarded the Christians vaguely as a
Jewish sect, and as
such the latter was subject to the impost of half a shekel for rebuilding the
Capitoline temple, which had been destroyed when Rome was stormed for
Vespasian; but this tax does not seem to have been the occasion of any general
harsh treatment. Tertullian
(Apologia) and Eusebius
(Church History)
agree in acquitting Vespasian of persecution. St. Linus, the pope whose death occurred
during this period, cannot be proved to have suffered martyrdom, while St.
Apollaris of Ravenna,
though a martyr, may
very well have suffered at the hands of a local mob. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15379a.htm
Trajan
Art and learning flourished
during Trajan's reign. Among his literary contemporaries were Tacitus, Juvenal,
and the younger Pliny with whom the emperor carried on an animated
correspondence. This correspondence belonging to the years 111-3 throws light
on the persecution of Christians during this
reign. Pliny was legate
of the double Province of Bithynia and Pontus. In this territory
he found many Christians
and requested instructions from Trajan (Ep. 96). In his reply (Ep. 97) Trajan
considers the confession of Christianity
as a crime worthy of death, but forbade a search for Christians and the
acceptance of anonymous denunciations. Whoever shows by sacrificing to the gods
that he is not a Christian
is to be released. Where the adherence to Christianity is proved the punishment of
death is to follow. The action he prescribed rests on the coercive power of the
police, the right of repression of the magistracy, which required no settled
form of procedure. In pursuance of these orders measures were taken against Christians in other
places also. The most distinguished martyrs under Trajan were
Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, and Simeon, Bishop of Jerusalem. Legend names
many others, but there was no actual persecution on a large
scale and the position of the Christians was in general
satisfactory. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15015a.htm
Gladiators
Vespasian
The Colosseum was built by
Emperor Vespasian, founder of the Flavian dynasty, for Titus, his successor.
Colosseum is an elliptical
building measuring 189 meters long and 156 meters wide with a base area of
24,000 m² with a height of more than 48 meter.
The Colosseum has over 80
entrances and can accommodate about 50,000 spectators.
It is thought that over 500,000
people lost their lives and over a million wild animals were killed throughout
the duration of the Colosseum hosted people vs. beast games.
There were 36 trap doors in Arena
allowing for elaborate special effects
All Ancient Romans had free entry
to the Colosseum for events, and were also fed throughout the spectacles.
Festivals as well as games could
last up to 100 days in the Colosseum.
The Ancient Romans would
sometimes flood the Colosseum and have miniature ship naval battles inside as a
way of entertainment.
The Colosseum only took 10 years to build
starting in 70 AD and was completed in 80 AD using over 60,000 Jewish slaves.
Trajan
Trajan was a brutal warlord. The depictions on
Trajan's Column, thought to date to the years 101-106 tell a story of death and
Roman ruthlessness on a grand scale. In this time span, Trajan enacted genocide
on the Dacians - The king Burebista, Zalmoxis his philosopher/sage, and the
entire nation were destroyed according to Strabo (7,3,5). In his rule 2,000
Jews of the town Emmaus were crucified, according to Florus, Epitome of Roman
History (II,88)
In the "Temple of Augustus", at Ankara,
in Turkey, there is the following [inscription], placed there by Trajan:
“Three times I gave
gladiatorial shows in my own name,
and five times in the name of my sons or grandsons, in
which shows about 10,000 men fought to the death”
and five times in the name of my sons or grandsons, in
which shows about 10,000 men fought to the death”
This barbaric ruthlessness on a large scale are
typically Roman qualities, as distinct from those whom the Romans themselves
called Barbarians.
Sol Invictus
As far as religion went,
Vespasian, Trajan, favoured the Mithraïc cult of Sol Invictus (“Unconquered Sun’),
which divinity would become the official sun god of the Roman Empire and a
patron of soldiers.
Vespasian
After the great fire of AD 64,
in which a large portion of Rome was destroyed, Nero erected a colossal statue
of himself one hundred and twenty feet high (Suetonius, Life of Nero,
XXXI.1), which Vespasian converted to one of Sol, placing a radiant crown on
its head (Suetonius, Vespasian, XVIII.1; Pliny, Natural History,
XXXIV.45). Vespasian also was the first emperor to display the image of Sol on
imperial coinage. By the second century AD, this autochthonous deity was being
eclipsed by an Eastern cult of the Sun, Invictus appearing as an epithet
in an inscription in AD 158. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/calendar/invictus.html
Trajan
Before
Aurelian, Sol was no more prominent than many other deities. The denarius of
Trajan [below], from 111 CE [sic], demonstrates this; it shows the heads of Sol
and Luna being carried by Aeternitas, symbolising that day and night are component parts of
eternity. Trajan and his successor, Hadrian, also struck coins much like those
above, showing the radiate head of Sol; sometimes they were labelled Oriens,
meaning the rising sun in the east.
The reverse of a denarius of Trajan showing Aeternitas.
Isis, Serapis and Dionysus
Vespasian
… from the
time of Vespasian the worship of Isis and Serapis became firmly established,
and remained in a flourishing condition until the general introduction of
Christianity.
In Tarsus, where he served next, with its grand processions of the
dying and rising God, Baal Taraz, Vespasian was introduced
to the Mysteries of Dionysus,
the only Olympian with a mortal mother. (Ralph Thorpe, The Gospel of the King of the Jews).
Trajan
According to Josephus, Caligula
donned female garb and took part in the mysteries he instituted, and in the
Hellenistic age Isis acquired a "new rank as a leading goddess of the
Mediterranean world." Vespasian, along with Titus, practiced incubation in
the Roman Iseum. Domitian built another Iseum along with a Serapeum. Trajan
appears before Isis and Horus, presenting them with votive offerings of wine,
in a bas-relief on his triumphal arch in Rome.
Built around 104 C.E, it is one
of the finest monuments in Ephesus. It was constructed in honor of Emperor
Trajan, and a statue of Trajan stood in the central niche on the facade
overlooking the pool.
The pool of the fountain of
Trajan was 20×10 meters, surrounded by columns and statues. These statues were
Dionysus, Satyr, Aphrodite and the family of the Emperor. They are now on
display in the Ephesus Museum.
There is enough
in this series, I think, to encourage one in the consideration of Trajan as a
Vespasian-type, enabling for an imperial folding now of Nero (Domitius) with
Domitian and of Vespasian with Trajan. Regarding Trajan’s supposed successor
(but not son), Hadrian, who has been called “a mirror image” of the Seleucid
tyrant, Antiochus IV ‘Epiphanes’, he would likely be a composite figure, partly
based upon Antiochus IV (and perhaps others), and, considering his reputation
as a destroyer of Jerusalem, partly on Titus, the son of Vespasian, who really
did destroy Jerusalem and demolish its Temple.
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